THE COMMERCIAL AGREEMENTS DURING THE CRUSADES: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE ECONOMIC AND LEGAL DEVELOPMENT OF MEDITERRANEAN TRADE (1095–1291 AD)

The period of the Crusades (1095–1291 AD) is considered one of the most transformative stages in the history of international trade and commercial law during the Middle Ages. This study aims to analyze the nature and development of commercial agreements during this decisive historical era, with a focus on the role of the Italian maritime republics in shaping a sophisticated trading system across the Mediterranean Sea. The study reveals the complex interaction between war and trade, and how commercial powers managed to develop sustainable economic networks despite political and religious conflicts. It also explores the influence of Islamic commercial law and Arab practices on the development of European financial and legal instruments, which later formed the foundation of the modern banking and commercial system. By adopting a historical-analytical methodology based on primary sources and commercial documents, the study presents a new understanding of the role of trade in building cultural bridges and developing international economic institutions